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The audio-lingual method, Army Method, or New Key,[1] is a style of teaching used in teaching foreign languages. It is based on behaviorist theory, which postulates that certain traits of living things, and in this case humans, could be trained through a system of reinforcement. The correct use of a trait would receive positive feedback while incorrect use of that trait would receive negative feedback.[2]
This approach to language learning was similar to another, earlier method called the direct method. [3]Like the direct method, the audio-lingual method advised that students should be taught a language directly, without using the students' native language to explain new words or grammar in the target language. However, unlike the direct method, the audio-lingual method did not focus on teaching vocabulary. Rather, the teacher drilled students in the use of grammar.
Applied to language instruction, and often within the context of the language lab, it means that the instructor would present the correct model of a sentence and the students would have to repeat it. The teacher would then continue by presenting new words for the students to sample in the same structure. In audio-lingualism, there is no explicit grammar instruction: everything is simply memorized in form.
The idea is for the students to practice the particular construct until they can use it spontaneously. The lessons are built on static drills in which the students have little or no control on their own output; the teacher is expecting a particular response and not providing the desired response will result in a student receiving negative feedback. This type of activity, for the foundation of language learning, is in direct opposition with communicative language teaching.
Charles Carpenter Fries, the director of the English Language Institute at the University of Michigan, the first of its kind in the United States, believed that learning structure or grammar was the starting point for the student. In other words, it was the students' job to recite the basic sentence patterns and grammatical structures. The students were given only “enough vocabulary to make such drills possible.” (Richards, J.C. et-al. 1986). Fries later included principles of behavioural psychology, as developed by B.F. Skinner, into this method.[citation needed]
Oral drills[edit]
Drills and pattern practice are typical (Richards, J.C. et al., 1986):
- Repetition: the student repeats an utterance as soon as he hears it.
- Inflection: one word in a sentence appears in another form when repeated.
- Replacement: one word is replaced by another.
- Restatement: the student rephrases an utterance.
Examples[edit]
Inflection: Teacher: I ate the sandwich. Student: I ate the sandwiches.
Replacement: Teacher: He bought the car for half-price. Student: He bought it for half-price.
Restatement: Teacher: Tell me not to smoke so often. Student: Don't smoke so often!
The following example illustrates how more than one sort of drill can be incorporated into one practice session:
“Teacher: There's a cup on the table ... repeat
Students: There's a cup on the table
Teacher: Spoon
Students: There's a spoon on the table
Teacher: Book
Students: There's a book on the table
Teacher: On the chair
Students: There's a book on the chair
etc.”[4]
Replacement: Teacher: He bought the car for half-price. Student: He bought it for half-price.
Restatement: Teacher: Tell me not to smoke so often. Student: Don't smoke so often!
The following example illustrates how more than one sort of drill can be incorporated into one practice session:
“Teacher: There's a cup on the table ... repeat
Students: There's a cup on the table
Teacher: Spoon
Students: There's a spoon on the table
Teacher: Book
Students: There's a book on the table
Teacher: On the chair
Students: There's a book on the chair
etc.”[4]
Historical roots[edit]
The method is the product of three historical circumstances. For its views on language, it drew on the work of American linguists such as Leonard Bloomfield. The prime concern of American linguists in the early decades of the 20th century had been to document all the indigenous languages spoken in the US. However, because of the dearth of trained native teachers who would provide a theoretical description of the native languages, linguists had to rely on observation. For the same reason, a strong focus on oral language was developed.
At the same time, behaviourist psychologists such as B.F. Skinner were forming the belief that all behaviour (including language) was learnt through repetition and positive or negative reinforcement. The third factor was the outbreak of World War II, which created the need to post large number of American servicemen all over the world. It was, therefore, necessary to provide these soldiers with at least basic verbal communication skills. Unsurprisingly, the new method relied on the prevailing scientific methods of the time, observation and repetition, which were also admirably suited to teaching en masse. Because of the influence of the military, early versions of the audio-lingualism came to be known as the “army method.”[1]
In practice[edit]
As mentioned, lessons in the classroom focus on the correct imitation of the teacher by the students[citation needed]. The students expected to produce the correct output, but attention is also paid to correct pronunciation. Although correct grammar is expected in usage, no explicit grammatical instruction is given. Furthermore, the target language is the only language to be used in the classroom.[1] Modern implementations are more lax on this last requirement.
Fall from popularity[edit]
In the late 1950s, the theoretical underpinnings of the method were questioned by linguists such as Noam Chomsky, who pointed out the limitations of structural linguistics. The relevance of behaviorist psychology to language learning was also questioned, most famously by Chomsky's review of B.F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior in 1959. The audio-lingual method was thus deprived of its scientific credibility and it was only a matter of time before the effectiveness of the method itself was questioned.
In 1964, Wilga Rivers released a critique of the method in her book, The Psychologist and the Foreign Language Teacher. Subsequent research by others, inspired by her book, produced results which showed explicit grammatical instruction in the mother language to be more productive.[citation needed] These developments, coupled with the emergence of humanist pedagogy led to a rapid decline in the popularity of audiolingualism.[citation needed]
Philip Smith's study from 1965-1969, termed the Pennsylvania Project, provided significant proof that audio-lingual methods were less effective than a more traditional cognitive approach involving the learner's first language.[5]
In recent years[edit]
Despite being discredited as an effective teaching methodology in 1970,[5] audio-lingualism continues to be used today although it is typically not used as the foundation of a course but rather has been relegated to use in individual lessons. As it continues to be used, it also continues to be criticized. As Jeremy Harmer notes, “Audio-lingual methodology seems to banish all forms of language processing that help students sort out new language information in their own minds.” As this type of lesson is very teacher-centered, it is a popular methodology for both teachers and students, perhaps for several reasons but especially because the input and output is restricted and both parties know what to expect. Some hybrid approaches have been developed, as can be seen in the textbook Japanese: The Spoken Language (1987–90), which uses repetition and drills extensively but supplements them with detailed grammar explanations in English.
Butzkamm and Caldwell have tried to revive traditional pattern practice in the form of bilingual semi-communicative drills. For them, the theoretical basis, and sufficient justification, of pattern drills is the generative principle, which refers to the human capacity to generate an infinite number of sentences from a finite grammatical competence.[6]
In popular culture[edit]
The fact that audio-lingualism continues to manifest itself in the classroom is reflected in popular culture. Films often depict one of the most well-known aspects of audio-lingualism: the repetition drill. In South Park Episode #172, Cartman applies the repetition drill while teaching a class of high school students. In Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome, an LP record of a French lesson instructs a pair of obliging children to 'repeat' short phrases in French and then in English.
Main features[edit]
- Each skill (listening, speaking, reading, writing) is treated and taught separately.
- The skills of writing and reading are not neglected, but the focus throughout remains on listening and speaking.
- Dialogue is the main feature of the audio-lingual syllabus.
- Dialogues are the chief means of presenting language items. They provide learners an opportunity to practice, mimic and memorize bits of language.
- Patterns drills are used as an important technique and essential part of this method for language teaching and learning.
- The language laboratory was introduced as an important teaching aid.
- Mother tongue was not given much importance, similar to the direct method, but it was not deemphasized so rigidly.[clarification needed].[7]
Techniques[edit]
Skills are taught in the following order: listening, speaking, reading, writing. Language is taught through dialogues with useful vocabulary and common structures of communication. Students are made to memorize the dialogue line by line. Learners mimic the teacher or a tape listening carefully to all features of the spoken target language. Pronunciation like that of native speaker is important in presenting the model. Through repetition of phrases and sentences, a dialogue is learned by the first whole class, then smaller groups and finally individual learners.
Reading and writing are introduced in the next stage. The oral lesson learned in previous class is the reading material to establish a relationship between speech and writing. All reading material is introduced as orally first. Writing, in the early stages, is confined to transcriptions of the structures and dialogues learned earlier. Once learners mastered the basic structure, they were asked to write composition reports based on the oral lesson.[7]
Emphasizing the audio[edit]
The theory emphasizes the listening-speaking-reading-writing order.
Listening is important in developing speaking proficiency and so receives particular emphasis. There are strong arguments, both physiological and psychological, for combining speaking practice with training in listening comprehension.
Speaking is effective through listening. By hearing the sounds, articulation is more accurate, with differentiation of sounds, memorization and internalization of proper auditory sounds images. Development of a feel for the new language gains interest for the language.
There has been practically no study or experiments to determine how much time should be taken between listening experience and speaking practice.
Listening comprehension is most neglected in language learning. It is generally treated as incidental to speaking rather than as a foundation for it. Texts, guides and course of study contain tests for evaluating progress in listening comprehension, but they rarely contain specific learning materials designed for the systematic development of this skill.
Here are some materials that can be adapted for improving listening comprehension:
- The dialogue should be presented as a story, in the foreign language, using simple language.
- The meaning of some of the new words and expressions that will appear in the dialogue should be explained through gestures, visual aids, synonyms, etc. The idea is to teach the content in the story.
- Different role-plays can be used to present the dialogue.
- Without stopping, the dialogue can be gone through to hear how the entire conversation sounds at normal speed.
- True and false activity can improve comprehension.
- The entire dialogue can be repeated at normal rate speed. The student can close his eyes to eliminate distractions and increase his listening concentration.
- A listening comprehension test can be given.
- Listening comprehension practice can be given using dialogues from other courses of
study or recorded materials that contain most of the language that has previously been learned by the students. The speaking practice would begin after listening comprehension. The students will be ready to speak at this time. Speaking practice can proceed according to sequence.
- Pattern practice can be based on material taken from the dialogue.
- Mimicking can practice the dialogue itself.
- Performance of the dialogue in front of class and at the seats with the students changing roles and partners from time to time.
- Dialogue can be adapted.
Memorization of techniques suggested represent an approach that will enable student to memorize larger segments at a time and perform dialogues as a whole with more confidence. In the meantime, if teachers are willing to use their imagination and experiment with new techniques, many ways can be found to emphasize the audio in the method.[8]
Aims[edit]
- Oral skills are used systematically to emphasize communication. The foreign language is taught for communication, with a view to achieve development of communication skills.
- Practice is how the learning of the language takes place. Every language skill is the total of the sets of habits that the learner is expected to acquire. Practice is central to all the contemporary foreign language teaching methods. With audio-lingual method, it is emphasized even more.
- Oral learning is emphasized. Stress is put on oral skills at the early year of the foreign language course and is continued during the later years. Oral skills remain central even when, later, reading and writing are introduced. Learners are asked to speak only what they have had a chance to listen to sufficiently. They read only the material used as part of their practice. They have to write only that which they have read. Strict order of material, in terms of the four skills, is followed.[9]
Advantages[edit]
- Listening and speaking skills are emphasized and, especially the former, rigorously developed.
- The use of visual aids is effective in vocabulary teaching.
- The method is just as functional and easy to execute for larger groups.
- Correct pronunciation and structure are emphasized and acquired.
- It is a teacher-dominated method.
- The learner is in a directed role; the learner has little control over the material studied or the method of study.
Disadvantages[edit]
- The behaviorist approach to learning is now discredited. Many scholars have proved its weakness.[citation needed]
- It does not pay sufficient attention to communicative competence.[citation needed]
- Only language form is considered while meaning is neglected.[citation needed]
- Equal importance is not given to all four skills.[citation needed]
- It is a teacher-dominated method.
- It is a mechanical method since it demands pattern practice, drilling, and memorization over functional learning and organic usage.
- The learner is in a passive role; the learner has little control over their learning.[10]
References[edit]
- ^ abcWilfried Decoo, 'On The Mortality of Language Learning Methods'. Speech November 8, 2001.
- ^Reimann, Andrew (January 2018). Behaviorist Learning Theory. The TESOL Encyclopedia of English Language Teaching. pp. 1–6. doi:10.1002/9781118784235.eelt0155. ISBN9781118784228.
- ^Felder, Richard (March 1995). 'Foreign Language Annals'. Learning and Teaching Styles in Foreign and Second Language Education. Volume28, Issue1: 21–31.
- ^Harmer, Jeremy. The Practice of English Language Teaching. 3rd Edition. pg. 79-80. Essex: Pearson Education Ltd., 2001
- ^ abJames L. Barker lectureArchived January 12, 2009, at the Wayback Machine on November 8, 2001 at Brigham Young University, given by Wilfried Decoo.
- ^Butzkamm, Wolfgang; Caldwell, J.A.W. (2009). The bilingual reform. A paradigm shift in foreign language teaching. Tübingen: Narr Studienbücher. ISBN978-3-8233-6492-4.
- ^ abNagaraj (2005) [sixth since 1996]. English Language Teaching:Approaches , Methods, Techniques. Hyderabad: Orient Longman Private Limited.
- ^Allen, Harold B; Campbell, Russell N (1972) [1965]. Teaching English as a Second Language (Second ed.). New York: McGowan-Hill, Inc. p. 98–100.
- ^Joseph C., Mukalel (1998). Approaches to English language teaching. Delhi: Discovery Pulshing House.
- ^Diane Larsen, Freeman (2000). Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. Oxford University Press.
External links[edit]
Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Audio-lingual_method&oldid=925649669'
A Spanish lesson in Guadalajara, Mexico, taught using the Silent Way.
The Silent Way is a language-teaching method created by Caleb Gattegno that makes extensive use of silence as a teaching method. Gattegno introduced the method in 1963, in his book Teaching Foreign Languages in Schools: The Silent Way.[1] Gattegno was critical of mainstream language education at the time, and he based the method on his general theories of education rather than on existing language pedagogy. It is usually regarded as an 'alternative' language-teaching method; Cook groups it under 'other styles',[2] Richards groups it under 'alternative approaches and methods'[3] and Jin & Cortazzi group it under 'Humanistic or Alternative Approaches'.[4]
The method emphasizes learner autonomy and active student participation. Silence is used as a tool to achieve this goal; the teacher uses a mixture of silence and gestures to focus students' attention, to elicit responses from them, and to encourage them to correct their own errors. Pronunciation is seen as fundamental to the method, with a great deal of time spent on it each lesson. The Silent Way uses a structural syllabus and concentrates on teaching a small number of functional and versatile words. Translation and rote repetition are avoided, and the language is usually practiced in meaningful contexts. Evaluation is carried out by observation, and the teacher may never set a formal test.
One of the hallmarks of the Silent Way is the use of Cuisenaire rods, which can be used for anything from introducing simple commands ('Take two red rods and give them to her.') to representing objects such as clocks and floor plans. The method also draws on color associations to help teach pronunciation; there is a sound-color chart which is used to teach the language sounds, colored word charts which are used for work on sentences, and colored Fidel charts which are used to teach spelling. While the Silent Way is not widely used in its original form, its ideas have been influential, especially in the teaching of pronunciation.
- 3Process
Background and principles[edit]
Caleb Gattegno, creator of the Silent Way.
Gattegno was an outsider to language education when Teaching Foreign Languages in Schools was first published in 1963. The book conspicuously lacked the names of most prominent language educators and linguists of the time, and for the decade following its publication Gattegno's works were only rarely cited in language education books and journals.[5] He was previously a designer of mathematics and reading programmes, and the use of color charts and colored Cuisenaire rods in the Silent Way grew directly out of this experience.[6]
Gattegno was openly sceptical of the role the linguistic theory of his time had in language teaching. He felt that linguistic studies 'may be a specialization, [that] carry with them a narrow opening of one's sensitivity and perhaps serve very little towards the broad end in mind'.[7] The Silent Way was conceived as a special case of Gattegno's broader educational principles, which he had developed to solve general problems in learning, and which he had previously applied to the teaching of mathematics and of spelling in the mother tongue. Broadly, these principles are:[8]
- Teachers should concentrate on how students learn, not on how to teach
- Imitation and drill are not the primary means by which students learn
- Learning consists of trial and error, deliberate experimentation, suspending judgement, and revising conclusions
- In learning, learners draw on everything that they already know, especially their native language
- The teacher must not interfere with the learning process
These principles situate the Silent Way in the tradition of discovery learning, that sees learning as a creative problem-solving activity.[6]
Design and goals[edit]
The general goal of the Silent Way is to help beginning-level students gain basic fluency in the target language, with the ultimate aim being near-native language proficiency and good pronunciation.[9] An important part of this ability is being able to use the language for self-expression; students should be able to express their thoughts, feelings, and needs in the target language. In order to help them achieve this, teachers emphasize self-reliance.[10] Students are encouraged to actively explore the language,[11] and to develop their own 'inner criteria' as to what is linguistically acceptable. [12]
The role of the teacher is that of technician or engineer. The teacher's task is to focus the students' attention, and provide exercises to help them develop language facility; however, to ensure their self-reliance, the teacher should only help the students as much as is strictly necessary.[13] As Gattegno says, 'The teacher works with the student; the student works on the language.'[14] For example, teachers will often give students time to correct their own mistakes before giving them the answer to a question.[15] Teachers also avoid praise or criticism, as it can discourage students from developing self-reliance.[15]
Gattegno's original sound-color chart for English. This type of chart is used right from the beginning stages to teach pronunciation and word stress.
In the Silent Way students are seen as bringing a vast amount of experience and knowledge with them to the classroom; namely, their first language. The teacher capitalizes on this knowledge when introducing new material, always building from the known to the unknown.[16] The students begin their study of the language by studying its sound system. The sounds are associated to different colors using a sound-color chart that is specific to the language being learned. The teacher first elicits sounds that are already present in the students' native language, and then progresses to the development of sounds that are new to them. These sound-color associations are later used to help the students with spelling, reading, and pronunciation.[14]
A word chart. Its color-coding enables the teacher to remain silent while students work out pronunciation by themselves.
The Silent Way uses a structural syllabus. The teacher will typically introduce one new language structure at a time, and old structures are continuously reviewed and recycled.[10] These structures are chosen for their propositional meaning, not for their communicative value.[17] The teacher will set up learning situations for the students which focus their attention on each new structure.[14] For example, the teacher might ask students to label a floor plan of a house in order to introduce the concepts of inside and outside.[18] Once the language structures have been presented in this way, learners learn the grammar rules through a process of induction.[17]
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Gattegno saw the choice of which vocabulary to teach as vital to the language learning process. He advised teachers to concentrate on the most functional and versatile words, to help students build a functional vocabulary.[17]
Translation and rote repetition are avoided, and instead emphasis is placed on conveying meaning through students' perceptions, and through practicing the language in meaningful contexts.[19] In the floor plan example, the plan itself negates the need for translation, and the teacher is able to give the students meaningful practice simply by pointing to different parts of the house.[18] The four skills of active listening, speaking, reading, and writing are worked on from the beginning stages, although students only learn to read something after they have learned to say it.[20]
Evaluation in the Silent Way is carried out primarily by observation. Teachers may never give a formal test, but they constantly assess students by observing their actions. This allows them to respond straight away to any problems the students might have.[21] Teachers also gain feedback through observing students' errors; errors are seen as natural and necessary for learning, and can be a useful guide as to what structures need more practice.[15] Furthermore, teachers may gain feedback by asking the students at the end of the lesson.[11] When evaluating the students, teachers expect them to learn at different rates, and students are not penalized for learning more slowly than their classmates. Teachers look for steady progress in the language, not perfection.[15]
Process[edit]
Teaching techniques[edit]
As the name implies, silence is a key tool of the teacher in the Silent Way. From the beginning levels, students do 90 percent or more of the talking.[22] Being silent moves the focus of the classroom from the teacher to the students,[23] and can encourage cooperation among them.[15] It also frees the teacher to observe the class.[11] Silence can be used to help students correct their own errors. Teachers can remain silent when a student makes a mistake to give them time to self-correct;[15] they can also help students with their pronunciation by mouthing words without vocalizing, and by using certain hand gestures.[24] When teachers do speak, they tend to say things only once so that students learn to focus their attention on them.[11]
A Silent Way classroom also makes extensive use of peer correction. Students are encouraged to help their classmates when they have trouble with any particular feature of the language. This help should be made in a cooperative fashion, not a competitive one. One of the teacher's tasks is to monitor these interactions, so that they are helpful and do not interfere with students' learning.[25]
Teaching materials[edit]
A set of Cuisenaire rods
The silent way makes use of specialized teaching materials: colored Cuisenaire rods, the sound-color chart, word charts, and Fidel charts. The Cuisenaire rods are wooden, and come in ten different lengths, but identical cross-section; each length has its own assigned color.[22] The rods are used in a wide variety of situations in the classroom. At the beginning stages they can be used to practice colors and numbers, and later they can be used in more complex grammar. For example, to teach prepositions the teacher could use the statement 'The blue rod is between the green one and the yellow one'. They can also be used more abstractly, perhaps to represent a clock when students are learning about time.[26]
A Fidel chart for English. These charts are used to teach spelling.
The sound-color chart consists of blocks of color, with one color representing one sound in the language being learned. The teacher uses this chart to help teach pronunciation; as well as pointing to colors to help students with the different sounds, the teacher can also tap particular colors very hard to help students learn word stress. Later in the learning process, students can point to the chart themselves. The chart can help students perceive sounds that may not occur in their first language, and it also allows students to practice making these sounds without relying on mechanical repetition. It also provides an easily verifiable record of which sounds the students have and which they have not, which can help their autonomy.[25]
The word charts contain the functional vocabulary of the target language, and use the same color scheme as the sound-color chart. Each letter is colored in a way that indicates its pronunciation. The teacher can point to the chart to highlight the pronunciation of different words in sentences that the students are learning. There are twelve word charts in English, containing a total of around five hundred words.[27] The Fidel charts also use the same color-coding, and list the various ways that sounds can be spelled. For example, in English, the entry for the sound /ey/ contains the spellings ay, ea, ei, eigh, etc., all written in the same color. These can be used to help students associate sounds with their spelling.[28]
Reception and influence[edit]
As of 2000, the Silent Way was only used by a small number of teachers. These teachers often work in situations where accuracy or speed of learning is important. Their working conditions may also be challenging, for example working with illiterate refugees.[29] However, the ideas behind the Silent Way continue to be influential,[30] particularly in the area of teaching pronunciation.[31][32]
See also[edit]
Notes[edit]
- ^Gattegno 1963, available as Gattegno 1972.
- ^Cook 2008, pp. 266–270.
- ^Richards 1986, pp. 81–89.
- ^Jin & Cortazzi 2011, pp. 568–569.
- ^Stevick 1974, p. 1.
- ^ abRichards 1986, p. 81.
- ^Gattegno 1972, p. 84, cited in Richards 1986, p. 82.
- ^Stevick 1974, pp. 1–2.
- ^Richards 1986, p. 83.
- ^ abLarsen-Freeman 2000, p. 64.
- ^ abcdLarsen-Freeman 2000, p. 63.
- ^Larsen-Freeman 2000, p. 60.
- ^Larsen-Freeman 2000, pp. 64–65.
- ^ abcLarsen-Freeman 2000, p. 65.
- ^ abcdefLarsen-Freeman 2000, p. 62.
- ^Larsen-Freeman 2000, pp. 60, 63.
- ^ abcRichards 1986, p. 82.
- ^ abLarsen-Freeman 2000, p. 59.
- ^Larsen-Freeman 2000, pp. 62–63.
- ^Larsen-Freeman 2000, p. 66.
- ^Larsen-Freeman 2000, pp. 60, 67.
- ^ abStevick 1974, p. 2.
- ^Larsen-Freeman 2000, p. 61.
- ^Larsen-Freeman 2000, pp. 62, 69.
- ^ abLarsen-Freeman 2000, p. 68.
- ^Larsen-Freeman 2000, p. 69.
- ^Larsen-Freeman 2000, pp. 69–70.
- ^Larsen-Freeman 2000, p. 70.
- ^Byram 2000, p. 546-548.
- ^Young & Messum 2013.
- ^Underhill 2005.
- ^Messum 2012.
References[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to The Silent Way. |
- Byram, Michael, ed. (2000). Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and Learning. London: Routledge.
- Cook, Vivian (2008). Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. London: Arnold. ISBN978-0-340-95876-6.
- Gattegno, Caleb (1963). Teaching Foreign Languages in Schools: The Silent Way (1st ed.). Reading, UK: Educational Explorers. Retrieved October 10, 2011.
- Gattegno, Caleb (1972). Teaching Foreign Languages in Schools: The Silent Way (2nd ed.). New York: Educational Solutions. ISBN978-0-87825-046-2. Retrieved October 10, 2011.
- Jin, Lixian; Cortazzi, Martin (2011). 'Re-Evaluating Traditional Approaches to Second Language Teaching and Learning'. In Hinkel, Eli (ed.). Handbook of Research in Second Language Teaching and Learning, Volume 2. New York: Routledge. pp. 558–575. ISBN978-0-415-99872-7.
- Larsen-Freeman, Diane (2000). Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. Teaching Techniques in English as a Second Language (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-435574-2.
- Messum, Piers (2012). 'Teaching pronunciation without using imitation'(PDF). In Levis, J.; LeVelle, K. (eds.). Proceedings of the 3rd Pronunciation in Second Language Learning and Teaching Conference. Ames, IA: Iowa State University. pp. 154–160. Retrieved August 14, 2015.
- Raynal, Jean-Marc (1995). 'La mise en place des premiers apprentissages des automatismes linguistiques avec la didactique du Silent Way'. L'Enseignement du Français Au Japon. 23: 51–61. doi:10.24495/efj.23.0-51 (inactive 2019-11-07). Retrieved 2017-01-21.
- Raynal, Jean-Marc (1997). 'Pédagogie et langage à l'étude du cinéma'. L'Enseignement du Français Au Japon. 25: 36–39. doi:10.24495/efj.25.0-40 (inactive 2019-11-07). Retrieved 2017-01-21.
- Raynal, Jean-Marc (2011). 'Language and Reality'. Retrieved 2017-01-21.
- Richards, Jack (1986). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching: A Description and Analysis. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-32093-1.
- Stevick, Earl (1974). 'Review of Teaching Foreign Languages in the Schools: The Silent Way'(PDF). TESOL Quarterly. 8 (3): 305–313. doi:10.2307/3586174. JSTOR3586174. Retrieved 2011-04-28.
- Underhill, Adrian (2005). Sound Foundations. London: Macmillan. ISBN978-1405064101.
- Young, Roslyn (2011). L'anglais avec l'approche Silent Way. Paris: Hachette. ISBN978-2-212-54978-2.
- Young, Roslyn; Messum, Piers (May 2013). 'Gattegno's legacy'. Voices. IATEFL (232): 8–9. ISSN1814-3830. Retrieved August 14, 2015.
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